The Hidden War - Morale in the Civil War
by Carl Cox
Note on this text: Originally submitted as a term-paper for an English
class, this paper has been edited once again for spelling and grammatical
errors, but the body remains intact. Please submit opinions, thoughts,
and comments to NAR (dsadmnp@prism.gatech.edu).
Men have fought wars on many occasions in the pursuit of wealth,
power, and honor. Yet within each war many smaller wars take place:
individuals determine if they are fighting for good, discrimination
attacks the heart of the ranks, and anger spurs battles between
individuals, all within a single regiment. One of the most common and
most devastating of these unseen wars is that for higher morale. During
the American Civil War, the Confederate troops lost this fight due to
their unrealistic expectations of war, its difficult conditions, strenuous
camp life, and lack of effective equipment.
The men who eventually became the troops of the Confederacy during
the Civil War didn't know what they were getting into. The last war that
most Americans had fought began in 1812, forty-nine years before; the
last- predominately ground war was the American Revolution, and few living
remembered that. Few really knew war's truths, and consequentially, most
people saw it as an adventure (Catton 150). "War, with its offerings of
travel to far places, of intimate association with large numbers of other
men, of the glory and excitement of battle" seemed to be the perfect break
from everyday life (Wiley 17). These ideas probably developed from
earlier stories and tales of war that tend to celebrate it, tell of
glorious battles and stunning heroes, of great foes and breathtaking
victories. Wherever obtained, though, these soon-to-be soldiers expected
war to be thrilling and to gain glory with little or no work and certainly
no discomforts.
In order to keep their lives as pleasant as possible, the soldiers
took with them to war many of life's little luxuries. As troops packed
for war, they did not forget their common pleasantries, such as clean
clothes, books, cards and the like. They started from home with "wine
casks, food packages, tobacco and cigars, fine linens" on their backs; the
occasional soldier even "brought faithful slaves" (Vandiver 111). Troops
would enter camp carrying parting gifts (Wiley 22). One soldier later
recalled that he carried to war "'myself, saddle, bridle, saddle-blanket,
curry comb, horse brush, coffee pot, tin cup, 20 lb. ham, 200 biscuit, 5
lb. ground coffee, 5 lb. sugar, 1 large pound cake..., 6 shirts, 6 prs.
socks, 3 prs. drawers, 2 prs. pants, 2 jackets, 1 pr. heavy mud boots,
sixty feet of rope with a twelve inch iron pan attached'" (24). But these
useful items which seemed essential to everyday life were later seen as
luxuries and excess baggage and left with sadness in the field behind the
army (23).
Yet, to begin with, the soldiers thought war would be fun and
short-lived. In fact, most Southerners thought that the war wouldn't take
any time at all. Officials predicted it would last a couple of battles
near the disputed border at most (19). Many thought that the northern
states would avoid fighting to save the Union because it would be too much
work (286). And furthermore, even if the Northerners did fight, the
Confederate armies "'[could] whip the Yankees with pop guns'" (286). The
massive numbers of volunteers in the South made huge armies, and that
coupled with the idea that all Southerners were born to the saddle and gun
gave the troops excessive confidence that they could easily defeat
anything that the Union could throw at them (Vandiver 66-67). This proved
untrue on many occasions to the troops' disappointment.
Once in the training camps and later in battle, many other
problems that would destroy morale became apparent. One of these was that
the soldiers elected most officers from their own ranks (Wiley 20), and
these elected officers had little military knowledge themselves (19).
Many of these officers found it impossible to learn the basics of combat
except with the common soldiers, which gave the troops very little respect
for them (Catton 152). Many officers also wanted the soldiers to like
them (152), which led to neglect of proper discipline and lower morale
(Vandiver 109).
The actual battles fought during the war also served to bring
morale down. For many, their first battle was the most horrific sight in
their lives (Wiley 32). The common rigors of battles placed intense
pressure on the soldiers. They "often went into combat hungry and
remained long under fire with little or nothing to eat" and "sometimes
[they] fought after exhausting marches" (89). Even if they began with
full stomachs, battles tended to make soldiers extremely hungry and
thirsty (74). In addition, the Confederate forces were often vastly
outnumbered (89). The course of battle often forced the troops into
trench style warfare, an extremely dangerous form of combat (79). The
mortality rates ran high for both soldier (209) and officer (89). In the
winter troops fought with no fire for hours in the frigid air (74).
Battle required that the soldiers "[lay] on the ground or... [stand] in
line" for extremely long periods of time in the cold wind or "broiling
sun," exhausting the men (73).
Dead everywhere after a battle devastated the men's morale.
Soldiers sang laments such as
It's many a mangled body
The blanket for the shroud
It's many a mangled body
left on the field alone
I am a rebel soldier
And far from my home (Jennings, "Rebel Soldier")
as they searched the bodies for survivors and buried the dead. Some of
these bodies lay on the ground in strange and grotesque positions (Wiley
75). These corpses foretold of the living soldiers' inevitable fate.
Perhaps even more disheartening after a battlefield defeat was the loss of
fallen comrades both dead and alive to the enemy (76).
The battlefield was not the last place that led to loss of life or
morale. Diseases took an even larger number of troops than did the
Yankees. One source estimated that for every case of injury in
Confederate armies there were five cases of sickness (244). Near the
beginning of the war, over one-half the troops were incapacitated at once
(244). This intensity of disease owed itself to many factors. Numerous
Southern soldiers, for example, originally lived on a farm and thus were
susceptible to common city diseases (245-246). Uncleanliness of water
(247) and camp also contributed, as did swarms of insects that infested
the land (245). Soap was extremely difficult to come by, and bathing soon
became rare (248). Cold and rain often plagued the troops for long periods
of time (246), and food was often poorly cooked (247). All these factors
combined and enhanced each other, causing wide-spread outbreaks of
measles, dysentery, diarrhea, malaria, typhoid, small pox, pneumonia,
bronchitis, catarrh, scurvy, erysipelas, pulmonary, and tuberculosis
(251-256). The inferior medicines and bygone procedures of the doctors,
however, contributed the most to death by disease.
Doctors found medicines extremely difficult to procure in the
South (Vandiver 114). The Union had declared all medicines contraband,
making the Confederacy's initial source of medicines inaccessible (173).
This, along with the deficiency of industry, including medicine making
industry, and the blockade of southern trade, made common medicines quite
uncommon. Most of the cures used in the Southern armies came from troops'
home remedies (Wiley 256). This could lead to any number of assorted
variations depending on ingredients found in the surrounding area. Many
of these probably did nothing, and some possibly hurt the patient.
But even if doctors had access to acceptable medicines, modern
practices of the time lacked effectiveness. "When [a soldier] fought, he
was likely to be hurt pretty badly, when he stayed in camp, he lived under
conditions that were very likely to make him sick; and in either case he
had almost no chance to get the kind of medical treatment [required]"
(Catton 163). The entire concept of sterilization had yet to be conceived
(164). No one knew why wounds became infected; diseases that were
otherwise curable or at least survivable "were dreaded killers" because no
one knew proper procedures for curing them (164). Conditions such as
these led many soldiers to want to leave the war for loved ones back home
(Axton).
When not fighting in battles, soldiers spent their time either
marching or in camp. This camp life alone often was extraordinarily
demoralizing. Days upon days of the monotony of camp extremely bored the
soldiers. Food rations rarely appeared in either good quality or quantity
(Bowen 59). The "cornmeal mixed with water and tough beef three times a
day" wrote one soldier "will knock [a soldier] under faster than Yankee
bullets" (Wiley 134-135). Typical rations consisted of some small
combination of "cornbread and beef... pork, peas, flour, hardtack,
potatoes, rice, molasses, sugar, and... vegetables" (Bowen 59).
Food quality proved to be an incessant problem. One could rarely
find a kitchen in camp, and bakeries were virtually nonexistent (Vandiver
112). Further, cooks possessed few utensils (Wiley 103). To make up for
this, soldiers made every kind of improvisation: half canteens served as
plates; beef was broiled on sticks; turtle shells made effective bowls
(104). Even with these improvisations, though, food was not cooked very
well (247). To top it off, "Southern soldiers were terrible cooks"
probably owing to the men having had a wife or servant cook for them
(Vandiver 112). A far greater problem concerned the soldiers much more,
though: quantity of food. The amount ordered for commissioned rations had
begun to be reduced just after the start of the war (Wiley 90), and the
trend of reducing rations continued (91). Further, the armies could
rarely meet the the amount of rations ordered to be commissioned due to
lack of food (Bowen 59). One reason stood above all others to explain
these shortages: the department in charge of issuing rations was the worst
organized department in the Confederacy, according to Wiley (96). The
department lacked funds to buy food, means of transporting it, preserves
to keep it, and boxes to package it (97). The soldiers, therefore, rarely
received edible rations; more often they were spoiled.
Troops fended for themselves when shortages occurred and found
many ways of acquiring food. Common methods included foraging,
purchasing, and receiving food as gifts, but these were of little help
(102). The armies stripped entire fields of their vegetables, leaving
none for either themselves or anyone else for later (Vandiver 113).
Capturing food from fallen enemies became the most popular method, however
(Wiley 102). A soldier once yelled in battle, "'Charge 'em, boys! They
have cheese in their haversacks!'" (Davis 123)
Lack of adequate rations combined with harsh winter weather every
year for a massive attack on morale. During the winter months, when snow
was possible and cold inevitable, most fighting between the armies ceased.
The troops then built their winter camps and stayed there throughout the
season, generally inactive. The troops often had to make their own
personal shelters against the wind and snow from whatever materials they
could find, including scrap wood, trees, fence-posts, or anything else
(Wiley 60). These shacks could only be thrown together because the
soldiers made them between drills and duties. In addition, the hard
winter conditions made soldiers even more susceptible to diseases
(Vandiver 198), and food transportation was severely hampered.
Anytime, winter or summer, camp proved an extremely boring place
to be (Wiley 151). This fact led many soldiers to develop ungainly habits
to pass the time, and these habits were often destructive to individual
moral. One such practice was drinking. Many soldiers found liquor a
convenient way to allow themselves to forget their dreary situation (40).
Even officers drank to an extent, a poor example to the troops (41). This
became such a major problem in the Confederate military that the war
department in 1862 ordered the generals to stop drinking with all means
possible (40). The troops ignored even this strong, order, however, by
finding creative ways to obtain and keep their liquor from the officers'
knowledge (41).
Gambling also took a foothold in camp life. People gambled out of
sheer boredom (36). Card games such a poker, twenty-one, euchre, and keno
became the most popular form of gambling, followed closely by raffling
(37). Calvary units raced horses for sport with troops betting on the
winner (38). When such conventional methods of gambling were not
available, soldiers improvised (38). They gambled on paper sail boats,
bug races, and even bug fights (38). The men bet anything for the chance
to win (30); troops lost entire paychecks in a single day leaving the
unfortunate loser penniless (39). Like drinking, many regiments set stern
rules against gambling, and also like drinking, the soldiers ignored the
rules (39).
Other poor habits developed in the armies as well. Theft from
other soldiers, both dead and alive became common (46) with food the prime
target (45). Prostitutes flourished in cities near the troops, and
occasionally came into the camp (51). Loud and frequent swearing could be
heard at all times (48). All in all, camp life proved disheartening, and
after several years, morally degrading.
These distressing times often came out in songs that the soldiers
sang. One song in particular explains very well another aspect of their
falling moral:
Well, we hadn't any powder
And we hadn't' any shot
And we hadn't any money
To buy what we ain't got. (Jennings, "Unreconstructed")
Not only did the soldiers lack gun powder and bullets, but they
lacked good clothing, new weapons, and many other necessities.
Clothing was hard to come by in the Confederate armies. When
registering to fight, recruiting officers asked volunteers to bring their
own clothes to camp (Wiley 108-109). Continued exposure and use wore the
standard home-spun clothing very quickly, and because the government would
not supply them, the solders had to find another way to get clothing.
According to Shotwell, a soldier could not purchase clothing for six
months due to lack of venders in the field and the small salaries made by
the soldiers (296). A common method for the soldier to replace clothes
was to write home and request that their wives, children, or slaves make
and send extra garments (Wiley 113). Soldiers bought or borrowed clothes
from other soldiers (114). Many soldiers even stooped to stealing the
clothing from dead enemies or allies (Catton 181). In fact, the armies
obtained so many clothes from Union officers that the Southern troops
appeared to be Union (Wiley 115).
Most soldiers rarely had shoes (89); lack of shoes became the
largest of the South's deficiencies (119). Shotwell recalls a statistic
that "fully ten thousand of [Lee's] men were barefooted " (295).
Sometimes soldiers fought for hours without shoes; one general reported
leading over 100 men thus (Wiley 51). Furthermore, the Battle of
Gettysburg, one of the largest battles in the Civil War, started as a
Confederate army looking for shoes in the town (Davis 136).
What clothing the soldiers could procure was often in poor shape.
"' My shoes is wering out very fast and my pants is warin out as fast as
my Shoes is,'" one soldier wrote (Wiley 129). Many think of the Southern
troops as wearing gray uniforms, but the colors worn more often reflected
availability than conformity (110). The Southern government decided that
wool should be the common cloth for clothing, including during hot marches
in the mid summer and fighting under the scorching sun (Bowen 44).
Leather supply dropped as the war progressed due to the reduction of herds
of hogs, cows, and horses, making shoe production or repair difficult
(Vandiver 173). The condition of clothing and the need to keep what one
had in good repair even prompted the soldiers to carry small sewing kits
commonly called housewives to fix minor damage (Wiley 166).
As with clothing, the South faced major shortages of weapons
during the Civil War. Confronted with this lack of guns, the armies had
to find ways to outfit their troops (288). The Southern government could
not produce weapons due to lack of industry, nor could it import them
because of the federal blockade. Therefore, Southern leaders turned to
different approaches. One of these , collecting weapons from the civilian
population (Catton 36), led to several problems. The civilians rebuked at
losing their guns, and the army collected a huge variety in gun types,
requiring an even larger variety of bullets (Wiley 290). Simply retrieving
weapons from the battle field proved a more practical alternative for
obtaining guns, but this still left many problems, including a large
variety of weapons (Vandiver 240).
Due in part to these problems and to the Southern agrarian
lifestyle, very few of the weapons in the southern armies were modern;
only about 10,000 modern guns existed in the Confederacy (Catton 36).
Most soldiers fought with flintlocks much like those used in the
Revolutionary War (36), and rain caused these to malfunction (Wiley
288-289). Some of the weapons broke easily or were extremely inaccurate
and hampered fighting (290-291). Artillery pieces could even explode
during battle, severely harming or killing nearby soldiers (Catton 158).
The soldiers of Confederacy encountered many hardships during he
Civil War. Faced with a strong enemy, they did not back down. For four
long, difficult years they fought for what they believed. Yet, because
they did not understand the truths of war, and because they had to face
harsh conditions both on the field and in camp, and because they lacked
useful and modern equipment, they lost their battle for higher morale.
Works Cited
*Axton, Hoyt. "Yellow Rose of Texas." Songs.
Bowen, John. Civil War Days: Everyday Life During the War Between the
States. London: Footnote Productions, 1987.
Catton, Bruce. The Civil War. New York: American Heritage Press, 1971.
Davis, Burke. The Civil War: Strange and Fascinating Facts. New York:
Fairfax P, 1960
*Jennings, Waylon. "An Old Unreconstructed." Songs.
*--- . "Rebel Soldier." Songs.
*Shotwell, Randolph Abbott. "Starvation, Rags, Dirt, and Vermin." The
Papers of Randolph Abbott Shotwell. (1929): 314-316. Rpt. in The Blue
and the Gray: Two Volumes in One: The Story of the Civil War as Told by
Participants. 1950. Henry Steele Commanger. New York: Fairfax P, 1982.
295-296.
Songs of the Civil War. Columbia, CT 48607, 1991.
Vandiver, Frank E. Their Tattered Flags. New York: Texas A&M UP, 1970.
Wiley, Bell Irvin. The Life of Johnny Reb: The Common Soldier of the
Confederacy. Garden City: Doubleday, 1971.
Works Consulted
Asimov, Isaac. Our Federal Union: The United States from 1816 to 1865.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin; 1975.
Biel, Timothy Levi. The Civil War. San Diego: Lucent, 1991.
Derry, Joseph T. Story of the Confederate States. New York: Arno P,
1979.
Symonds, Craig L. A Battlefield History of the Civil War. Annapolis:
Nautical and Aviation Publishing, 1983.
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